India is one of the most prominent developing countries in the world, with advancements in all spheres of society, including social, political, and economic aspects, yet it is devoid of development due to its rigid caste system. This research paper aims to examine ‘Indian Dalit Literature: Quest for Identity to Social Equality’ with a central focus on the literary works of Omprakash Valmiki’s autobiography, “Joothan”, and two other short stories named “Salam” and “Hide of an Ox”.
The paper is structured into five main sections, beginning with an overview of the history of caste in India, which majorly discusses the history of caste in India and the significance of ‘Dalit’ in language and custom. The second portion deals with the Dalit literature movement, which analyzes the emergence of the Dalit literature movement in India, its history, and the significance of it towards the establishment of Dalit consciousness and social equality.
The third portion covers Omprakash Valmiki’s contribution to the broader discourse on social justice in India with his seminal works in India’s Dalit literary sub-genre. The fourth and fifth sections draw a close parallel to Valmiki’s works, including “Joothan,” “Salam,” and “The Hide of the Ox,” and examine how they have contributed to the larger-hand discourse on social equality in India and the creation of Dalit consciousness and Dalit emancipation.
Dalits are considered to be the lowest caste in India’s caste system. After the British left India, the country experienced a new phase in its history, marked by decolonization and the emergence of Dalit literature. Dalit literature is a literary movement in India that has emerged as a form of resistance against the caste-based discrimination and oppression that the Dalit community has faced for centuries.
The term “Dalit” refers to the lowest caste group in the Hindu caste system, and Dalit literature is written by authors who belong to this community. Dalit literature has emerged as a powerful voice in contemporary Indian literature, shedding light on the experiences of marginalized communities and challenging dominant narratives about caste-based discrimination and oppression.
As a newly-established literary movement, Dalit literature first appeared in the 1960s in India, especially in the Marathi language. This movement, known as the Dalit Panthers, was initiated by a group of oppressed minorities and soon spread across the entire nation. The descriptive terms “untouchable” or “Harijan” were substituted by the term “Dalit,” which was adopted by the poets and writers of this movement.
Dalit literature began to appear as early as the 1960s as a result of an initiative led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a well-known leader of the Untouchable community, even though it may have often seemed new to the English-speaking public in the 1970s. In the 1940s and 1950s, some of Dr. Ambedkar’s periodicals, including Janata, Prabuddha Bharat, and Muknayak, published works of fiction and poetry by Untouchables, including the renowned short stories of Marathi author Bandhu Madhav, which centered on the actual realities of the oppressed. This theme was used by other authors as well.
Dalit literature represents a form of intellectual and creative expression that adapts social realities to a variety of literary genres. It developed as a subgenre of Indian literature and stood for a new tendency in the country’s literary landscape. In essence, Dalit literature explores the social and psychological perspectives of individuals who have been exploited socially and economically in India for several decades.
I. History of Caste in India
South Asia is frequently lauded for maintaining its natural uniqueness while assimilating outside influences. Nowhere is this fortitude more evidently displayed than in the way the Dravidian languages have assimilated what must be considered a significant amount of Indo-Aryan influence, nevertheless kept their core Dravidian characteristics. Arun Kamble in his work, “Dalit Panther: An Authoritative History” explores how Dravidian languages should have begun to become Indo-Aryanized earlier than 3,500 years ago.
The Rig Veda has linguistic elements that may be of Dravidian origin, which shows that Aryans interacted with Dravidian-speaking peoples several hundred years before the Rig Veda was written. During the Aryan invasion of India, the new “Varna” legislation created the four castes of Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. The fundamental definition and justification offered is that those working in the field of education are Brahmin, those fighting on the front lines are Kshatritya, those in business are Vaishya, and everyone else is a Shudra.
Due to this categorization, which was based on the skill, capacity, or ability of the employees, there are many castes according to the jobs they perform. Yet over thousands of years, the tragic reality set up, where children were granted the caste and class of their fathers or paternal families without consideration for their occupations, abilities, or skills continue. It is claimed that this system was put in place to safeguard against miscegenation, especially the native aborigines. The Shudras of the fourth class were shunned by society and afterwards referred to as ‘untouchables’.
The term “Dalit” derives from the Sanskrit word “Dalita,” which means “oppressed” in English. Dalits were historically referred to as “Chandala” or “Avarna” in ancient Indian society and were viewed as being beneath the Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya castes. In the mid – twentieth century, Narasimha Mehta and Mahatma Gandhi referred to this population as “Untouchable” and “Harijan” which means “people of God”.
On the other hand, J.H. Hutton referred to them as “Exterior Castes” in the global front. In recent years, the Shudra community has been referred to as “Dalit.” The meaning of this phrase, which is borrowed from Sanskrit and Marathi, is “grinding down” or “oppressed,” and it is meant to imply that untouchability is imposed by outsiders as opposed to being a natural byproduct of pollution.
II. The Dalit Literature Movement
The Suppressed Class Movement, led by Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar and motivated by Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, began in India in 1958. The American Black Movement had an impact on this movement. The term “Dalit literature” refers to works written by and about the Dalits, a group that is persecuted in Indian society. It exposes the atrocities done by the upper castes and the suffering of the untouchables, as well as caste-based prejudice and injustice. It also represents the community’s political consciousness, which emphasizes the fight for respect for oneself and dignity.
Dalit literature may also cover topics like the exploitation of the environment and the natural world, prejudice against African Americans, the oppression of women, the rights of homosexuals, and the mistreatment of the elderly. The word “Dalit” refers to all forms of dominance that any group may experience and has the ability to erase previous traumas. To assist historically underprivileged men and women, certain changes were enacted throughout the British Indian Empire.
The “Government of India Act 1935” designated untouchables as members of the Depressed Class, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes and offered social programmes for their advancement. Dalits started using speeches and writing to proclaim their independence and worth despite being seen as unclean and uneducated. This movement gave rise to a variety of literary works that emphasized on the exploited social lives of the oppressed, such as research articles, poetry, plays, short tales, and novels.
Among the first Dalit writers were Dohara Kakkaiah, a Dalit poet, and Madara Chennaiah, a cobbler-saint from the eleventh century. Poems (Abhanga) describing the plight of the oppressed were also written in the thirteenth century by the Marathi Saint Chokhamela and his wife Soyrabai. The phrase “Dalit literature” was first used in 1958 in Mumbai at the inaugural convention of the Maharashtra Dalit Sahitya Sangha (Maharashtra Dalit Literature Society).
An important Marathi author who helped establish Dalit literature is Baburao Bagul (1930–2008). When “Jevha Mi Jat Chorali” (When I had Concealed My Caste), his first collection of short stories, was released in 1963, it generated a sensation in Marathi literature for its powerful representation of a cruel society and gave Dalit literature a new lease on life. The Dalit movement was strengthened by the writings of other authors, such as Daya Pawar, N.R. Shende, and Namdeo Dhasal (who established Dalit Panther).
The Dalit literary movement, according to Gail Omvedt’s article, “Dalit literature in Maharashtra: Literature of Social and Protest and Revolt in Western India,” started in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but one of its most significant authors and a key movement precursor was Annabhau Sathe (1920–1968). There hasn’t been a comparable Dalit author since his time; he was an accomplished writer whose novels and short stories are still widely read today.
Although clannish aspects were there as early as the 11th century, the true Dalit Movement didn’t get underway until the 1960s, when Marathi literature served as the catalyst, and it later extended to Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Tamil, and Hindi. This movement involved Dalit authors who produced real, experience-based literature that contested the dominance of the affluent class in society.
The protagonists in Dalit stories expressed their rage, despair, unshakeable resolve, and hope in language that was frequently seen as coarse. Through their shared identity, cause, and political convictions, the Dalit writers from various Indian states are united as a group.
The literature of various nations frequently uses words like suffering, grief, resistance, demonstrations, racism, oppressed, suppressed, and untouchable. African-American writers in the United States produce “Black writing,” often referred to as “African-American writing.”
Phillis Wheatney and Olaudah Equiano, who started their work in the late 18th century, were the forerunners of this genre of writing. Slave tales helped African American literature become well-known during the 19th century, and it continued to develop during the 20th as a means of protest against racial prejudice. The social and political influences on the downtrodden classes are also reflected in Dalit writing from India.
African Americans experienced racial prejudice, which made it difficult for them to have happy lives. The Harlem Renaissance established African American literature as a topic of academic study throughout the 1920s and 1930s and made sure that authors and readers were aware of the challenges they faced. The bounds of African American literature were pushed by writers, regardless of whether they embraced or rejected such traditions.
The slave narrative and African American folklore predominated African American literature throughout the initial two centuries of the African Diaspora’s presence in the U.S., and they continued to have an impact on it long after slavery was abolished, according to the Continuum Encyclopaedia of American Literature. (Serafin, Steven R. and Bendixen, Alfred, 2003) However, the complete body of African American literature was not represented by these two artistic mediums.
The Harlem Renaissance, which was first referred to as the “New Negro Movement,” offered a new African American culture, featuring jazz and blues music, a large platform. It was distinguished by a strong sense of racial pride, symbolised by the concept of the “New Negro.” African Americans in America pushed progressive principles and social equality through literary works and artistic endeavors.
The majority of slaves were ignorant of their biological parents and dates of birth due to illiteracy and the use of black people as commodities in the slave trade. They were also forbidden from studying or reading. African Americans, on the other hand, verbally relayed their history of oppression through speeches, which subsequently evolved into artistic forms like autobiographies and folklore.
African American slaves’ autobiographies, which described their experiences of being separated from their families, sexually assaulted, and subjected to harsh treatment, helped raise awareness of the horrors of slavery. The abolitionist movement grew as a result of this. In order to promote lawful welfare policies for black people in America, the Black Panther Movement was born. Later, the Dalit Panther Movement in India used the African American fight as its model.
During the lifespan of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the first untouchable person to receive an education in the United States and England, the Dalit Panther Movement also acquired academic acclaim. Following the declaration of India’s independence in 1947, the concept of democracy gained ground, causing the general public to become more awakened throughout the nation. Dalit literature, which was heavily influenced by African American literature, portrayed their society in local languages.
The goal of the works of oppressed people, especially Dalits and African Americans, was to rise beyond orthodox and traditional civilizations. Subaltern studies frequently use the word “resistance” to describe a position taken in opposition to oppression. The phrase was originally used in literature by Ghassan Kanafani in his study of Palestinian literature, which sought to vehemently denounce oppressors.
In India, dalit literature is a type of resistance writing that highlights the oppression, prejudice, malnutrition, and high mortality rates of the impoverished, including untouchables, minorities, nomadic communities, and other marginalized groups. This literature questions accepted literary norms and is based on the teachings of Lord Buddha, a philosophy that Dr. B.R. Ambedkar adopted and which helped him become a hero to Dalits after India’s formation of democracy.
In addition to the teachings of Buddha, Kabir, Fule, Periyar Swami, and other local Dalit heroes, Ambedkar’s ideology has provided the downtrodden with a fresh perspective. His message of education, solidarity, and fighting for rights has become a beacon for the Dalits. As a result, Dalit culture and way of life have changed drastically.
III. Omprakash Valmiki and his contribution to broader discourse on social justice in India
Omprakash Valmiki is a well-known author who has significantly raised Dalit awareness in India. He is a notable character in the world of Dalit literature. Valmiki was a Dalit laborer who was born in 1950 and raised in abject poverty in the Muzaffarnagar area of Uttar Pradesh. Valmiki succeeded as a writer and served as a spokesperson for the Dalit people despite the obstacles he had to overcome. Through his work in the literary field, Valmiki illuminates the pervasive prejudice and bigotry that permeate Indian society.
He draws attention to the fact that Dalits were still considered second-class citizens even after India gained its freedom. He significantly contributed to the Dalit community’s growing awareness through his works. His writings have inspired the Dalit Community to confront the status quo and the system that has kept them under subjugation for decades. Valmiki has contributed to the empowerment and sense of pride in their identity by giving the Dalit people a voice.
Valmiki has contested the dominant view of Indian society, that has long neglected the pain of the marginalized and oppressed, by bringing the stories of Dalits to the fore. A new generation of Dalit authors and activists who are dedicated to advancing social justice and equality have been inspired by him; his works have become a key in the Dalit literary canon, encouraging many other authors to relate their own accounts of prejudice and injustice.
Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd, in his literary work named “Why I am Not a Hindu: A Sudra Critique of Hindutva Philosophy, Culture and Political Economy” extensively wrote about Valmiki’s contribution stating, “Valmiki’s writing is a testament to the resilience and resistance of the Dalit community in India. His work has inspired generations of Dalit writers and activists to continue the struggle for social justice.”
IV. ‘Joothan’: A Quest for Identity to Social Equality
The Indian caste system is deeply embedded in its history of divinely ordained Varna system that positions different communities of the society in terms of the work they do and the profession they follow. It has been a common phenomenon for Brahmins to have dominated the sphere of Hindu rituals which made them the most superior caste in the social system. The Dalits, on the other hand, were the lowest placed community in the Varna system, making them the most vulnerable group in the country’s social order. It is from the idea of divine intervention that began the process of segregation between the upper and the low caste people.
The Dalits are among the worst affected groups in the caste system. They are constant subjects of violence, oppression and discrimination. They are bound to live separately outside villages, do menial jobs such as sweeping, scavenging and cleaning and are often considered impure. The upper caste avoids any form of contact with them unless they need to extract work from them. The Dalits are compelled to live a life of separation.
They live and sustain separately, without having permission to share their food or water with the upper castes. Most dalits had to carry brooms while passing through the ‘upper lanes’ in order to clean their footprints from the streets. For them, both mental and physical abuse is a daily part of their lives, making them the most vulnerable community in our country.
‘Joothan, an untouchable’s life’ is an autobiography written by Omprakash Valmiki which was published in 1997. It was later translated into English by Arun Prabha Mukherjee in 2003. It is considered as one of the most prolific texts that represent the struggle of the Dalit community in India. Omprakash Valmiki belongs to the ‘Chuhra’ caste, which is among the lowest in the Indian varna system. As per traditions, Chuhras are considered as natural sweepers and manual scavengers, which is a profession carried forward by their caste since ages.
Valmiki’s Joothan remains an ideal representation of a growing untouchable living outside a village in Uttar Pradesh. Joothan can be closely analyzed through the Subaltern Studies Theory, a theoretical framework for postcolonial studies that was developed in the 1980s by a group of Indian academics that included Ranajit Guha, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Dipesh Chakrabarty, and Partha Chatterjee.
These individuals sought to challenge the predominant cultural and historical narratives by concentrating on the experiences and viewpoints of marginalized and oppressed groups. Italian Marxist philosopher and politician Antonio Gramsci first used the term “subaltern” in the early 20th century. The phrase was coined by Gramsci to describe people who are marginalized socially and politically and who are prohibited from engaging in their society’s dominant politics and culture.
The scholars of Subaltern Studies disapproved of conventional nationalist and Marxist approaches to history because they believed that it ignored the experiences of subaltern groups. They contended that rather than reflecting the realities of marginalized groups, these dominant narratives represented the viewpoints and interests of the ruling class. By providing voice to the lived experiences and points of view of subaltern communities and by examining how power relations were created and sustained, the scholars of subaltern studies aimed to question these dominant narratives.
In order to challenge dominant power relations, the Subaltern Studies Theory emphasizes the significance of reclaiming and magnifying the voices of subaltern communities. In order to challenge established power relations, it is crucial to reclaim subaltern groups’ tales and views because they are frequently erased or marginalized in dominant cultural and historical narratives. The need of comprehending how power relations are created and perpetuated is also emphasized by the subaltern studies theory.
Power relationships, according to this argument, are created through social and cultural processes rather than being innate or inherent. By studying the ways that language, culture, and social interactions shape power relations, scholars in subaltern studies aim to question and subvert these power connections through political and cultural resistance.
In the essay named, “Subaltern Studies: Deconstructing Historiography”, published in the book named ‘Selected Subaltern Studies’ in 1985, Dipesh Chakrabarty provides a thorough overview of the Subaltern Studies initiative, tracing its history, identifying its main topics, and outlining its goals. In contrast to conventional historiography, which has a tendency to give preference to the experiences and viewpoints of elites and dominant cultures, he claims that the effort constitutes a radical break. In contrast, subaltern groups like peasants, laborers, and other marginalized people want their voices and experiences to be recovered and amplified. He writes, “The Subaltern Studies group’s project… is based on the idea that we need to reconstruct the history of subaltern groups, in order to bring their perspectives and experiences to the center of historical inquiry”.
Chakrabarty further examines how the Subaltern Studies project interacts with wider discussions in postcolonial theory and cultural studies, such as those involving issues of power, representation, and agency: “The Subaltern Studies project is not just a critique of dominant cultural narratives; it is also a positive and creative endeavor to recover the voices and experiences of subaltern groups, and to create new forms of cultural and political expression. In this sense, the project is part of a broader movement to challenge the structures of power that have defined colonial and postcolonial societies, and to create a more just and inclusive future.”
He contends that the initiative gives a fresh perspective on how culture and power interact and that it has the ability to alter how we perceive the dynamics of colonialism and its aftereffects. Highlighting on the importance of Subaltern Studies Theory in the contemporary times, Sneja Gunew in her literary work, “Subalternity and Representation: Arguments in Cultural Theory,” wrote:
“The Subaltern Studies project has been transformative in its impact on the field of postcolonial studies, and has helped to reconfigure the ways in which we think about culture, power, and identity in the context of colonialism and its aftermath. By centering the perspectives and experiences of subaltern groups, the Subaltern Studies scholars have created a space for new forms of cultural and political expression, and have helped to challenge the dominant narratives of Indian history and culture.”
Suresh Kumar closely analyzes Omprakash Valmiki’s autobiography ‘Joothan’ in context to the subaltern studies theory. In his essay named, “The Subaltern in Autobiography”, he examines between the autobiographical narrative of Joothan and the Subaltern Studies theory by arguing that the text presents a dynamic representation of “textual intervention” in the dominant historical narrative that has largely ignored the experiences of Dalits in India.
Basing his narrative on the same, he comments: “Joothan represents a textual intervention in the dominant narrative that has suppressed the experiences and voices of the subaltern groups. By narrating his life-story, Valmiki creates a counter-narrative that challenges the dominant discourse and highlights the subaltern experiences of the Dalits.” M.S Nagarajan also advocates the same in his essay, “Subalternity and Resistance: A Reading of Omprakash Valmiki’s Joothan”, arguing how Joothan is a powerful critique of the dominant upper-caste norms that perpetuate caste oppression, serving as a mode of resistance to the same.
He closely examines how the text represents the subaltern experiences of Dalits in India. He defines subalternity as a state of being “subordinated to the dominant power structure”, one which includes the voices and experiences of marginalized groups being silenced. He notes that Joothan provides a graphic representation of counter-narrative to the dominant historical discourse that has continuously ignored the experiences of Dalits in India: “Joothan is a text that represents the subaltern experiences of Dalits in India. By narrating his life-story, Valmiki creates a counter-narrative that challenges the dominant discourse and highlights the subaltern experiences of the Dalits.”
Omprakash Valmiki’s Joothan can hence be analyzed in context to the subaltern studies theory as it acts as a memoir of the Chakrabarty further examines how the Subaltern Studies project interacts with wider discussions in postcolonial theory and cultural studies, such as those involving issues of power, representation, and agency: “The Subaltern Studies project is not just a critique of dominant cultural narratives; it is also a positive and creative endeavor to recover the voices and experiences of subaltern groups, and to create new forms of cultural and political expression.
In this sense, the project is part of a broader movement to challenge the structures of power that have defined colonial and postcolonial societies, and to create a more just and inclusive future.” He contends that the initiative gives a fresh perspective on how culture and power interact and that it has the ability to alter how we perceive the dynamics of colonialism and its aftereffects.
Highlighting on the importance of Subaltern Studies Theory in the contemporary times, Sneja Gunew in her literary work, “Subalternity and Representation: Arguments in Cultural Theory,” wrote: “The Subaltern Studies project has been transformative in its impact on the field of postcolonial studies, and has helped to reconfigure the ways in which we think about culture, power, and identity in the context of colonialism and its aftermath. By centering the perspectives and experiences of subaltern groups, the Subaltern Studies scholars have created a space for new forms of cultural and political expression, and have helped to challenge the dominant narratives of Indian history and culture.”
Suresh Kumar closely analyzes Omprakash Valmiki’s autobiography ‘Joothan’ in context to the subaltern studies theory. In his essay named, “The Subaltern in Autobiography”, he examines between the autobiographical narrative of Joothan and the Subaltern Studies theory by arguing that the text presents a dynamic representation of “textual intervention” in the dominant historical narrative that has largely ignored the experiences of Dalits in India.
Basing his narrative on the same, he comments: “Joothan represents a textual intervention in the dominant narrative that has suppressed the experiences and voices of the subaltern groups. By narrating his life-story, Valmiki creates a counter-narrative that challenges the dominant discourse and highlights the subaltern experiences of the Dalits.” M.S Nagarajan also advocates the same in his essay, “Subalternity and Resistance: A Reading of Omprakash Valmiki’s Joothan”, arguing how Joothan is a powerful critique of the dominant upper-caste norms that perpetuate caste oppression, serving as a mode of resistance to the same.
He closely examines how the text represents the subaltern experiences of Dalits in India. He defines subalternity as a state of being “subordinated to the dominant power structure”, one which includes the voices and experiences of marginalized groups being silenced. He notes that Joothan provides a graphic representation of counter-narrative to the dominant historical discourse that has continuously ignored the experiences of Dalits in India: “Joothan is a text that represents the subaltern experiences of Dalits in India. By narrating his life-story, Valmiki creates a counter-narrative that challenges the dominant discourse and highlights the subaltern experiences of the Dalits.”
author and his wayward struggle being born as a low caste in the wretched state of socio-economic condition of India and how despite all the oppression, he ends up being a reputed author and social critic today. In his autobiography, Valmiki recollects the memories of his childhood as a Dalit boy, who was repeatedly time and being exploited by the upper caste Tyagi community of his village.
Valmiki begins his narration with, “Untouchability was so rampant that while it was considered all right to touch dogs and cats or cows and buffaloes, if one happened to touch a chuhra, one got contaminated or polluted. The chuhras were not seen as human. They were simply things for use. Their utility lasted until the work was done. Use them and throw them away.” The author chose to begin his narrative by revealing the true spirits of discrimination that is usually not showcased in mainstream literature of India. He sets the entire plot of the autobiography and uses his narration to develop a sense of belong for its readers as well as make them conscious of the horrors of a segregated life.
He puts light on the notion of ‘purity and pollution’, which in reality forms a base for segregation and isolation of the Dalits. “Chuhre ka” is a term he was often associated with by the upper caste children of the Tyagi community to make him feel inferior and separated. GN Devy highlights that the use of the term “chuhra” in Joothan represents a “subaltern intervention” in the dominant cultural discourse of India. He writes: Valmiki’s use of the term chuhra represents a subaltern intervention in the dominant cultural discourse.
By using this derogatory term, Valmiki challenges the dominant narrative that has historically excluded and marginalized the experiences of Dalits in India.” Similarly, Anand Teltumde notes that the use of the term “chuhra” in Joothan serves as a reminder of the never-ending series of historical oppression of the Dalits in India. He writes, “Valmiki’s use of the term chuhra is a powerful reminder of the historical and ongoing oppression faced by Dalits in India. It is a term that has been used to dehumanize and marginalize Dalits, and Valmiki’s use of it serves as a reminder of the struggles faced by the Dalit community.”
Valmiki’s struggle goes onto other spheres in life such as education, something which was not meant for the low caste children to pursue. He narrates his condition in school where he is timely mistreated by both teachers and students alike. The author along with two others from the same community was made to sit near doors and not among other children.
The whole setting made it difficult for them to see the board clearly. Often, Valmiki had to undergo misconduct, ill-treatment and mental and physical abuse. Describing the same, he writes, “If I got thirsty in school, then I had to stand near the hand-pump. The boys would beat me in any case, but the teachers also punish me. All sorts of stratagems were tried so that I would run away from the school and take up the kind of work for which I was born.”
A very significant incident that leaves a deep impact on the author’s mind is the encounter with his school headmaster. The headmaster, who belonged to the upper caste Tyagi community, had ordered Valmiki to sweep the entire school for three consecutive days without letting him sit inside the classroom. While all other children went to school to study, the author came to sweep; something which is deeply symbolic to his caste identity.
This form of segregation became a base of Valmiki’s life as the Chuhra community lived separately outside the village. Unlike Hindu traditions, they followed different social norms which did not allow remarriages within the community. In terms of religious rituals too, the Chuhras worshiped different deities from Hindu God and followed their own ceremonies.
They were manual laborers and did menial tasks such as working in the fields, cleaning people’s houses, removing the carcasses of the dead, sweeping the village, among others. In return for a hard day’s labor, the Dalits earned low wages and could hardly manage to have two meals a day. Many, who labored in cowsheds of upper caste families, were toiled for the entire day and in return got paid in grains or a leftover (joothan) roti, generally made by mixing flour with husk, only meant for the consumption of Chuhras. This highlights the base of politics in dalit food as the untouchables were not allowed to consume food that the upper caste communities had. They were only meant for the leftover, something that was blatantly discarded and thrown away by the Tyagis.
Valmiki narrates an incident where his mother was denied the delicious food meant for the marriage attendees by Sukhdev Singh Tyagi. He narrates how his mother was accused of being a “Chuhri” and abused thoroughly for going off the limits and asking for fresh cooked meals. This incident remains vital for the author and makes him aware of the discriminatory politics being played by the Tyagis to keep them away from integrating with the upper caste Hindu society and remain at a place where they deserve.
In the book named, “From Hierarchy to Equality: The Context of Dalit Literature” K. Satyanarayana writes, “Valmiki’s mother’s response to Tyagi is a powerful moment of agency and resistance. She asserts her humanity and dignity in the face of a caste-based system that seeks to deny these things to Dalits.”
The concept of ‘joothan’ or the leftover denotes the notion of purity and pollution that is largely practiced by the upper castes. Valmiki specifically highlights the politics associated with food and the identity of Chuhras. It is a connotation that largely forms the base of separation between the upper and the low caste. The leftover food becomes a symbol of inferiority and the politics behind purity and pollution based on food practices.
Omprakash Valmiki uses the word ‘Joothan’ to best describe the oppressive regime under which he and his community had to live and how they were largely exploited by the dominant communities. While translating the entire autobiography in 2003, Arun Prabha Mukherjee chose not to translate the title of the book and rather let it be in its original Hindi form in order to best represent the struggles of Valmiki and his whole life. The term ‘Joothan’ holds real essence in its meaning and ideally represents the logical connotation of the word.
Rather than an English translated version such as ‘leftover’ or ‘discarded’, the original term best implies the true spirit of Dalit struggle and the politics behind food and separation. Focusing on Joothan as a “narrative of survival”, Suresh Kumar highlights the significance of the autobiography’s title in “The Subaltern in Autobiography: Joothan and Beyond,”. He writes: “The title Joothan denotes a caste-based ritual that requires the Dalits to accept the leftovers from the upper castes. It is an act of humiliation that exemplifies the marginality and exclusion that the Dalits have experienced in Indian society”
It is through his autobiography ‘Joothan’ that Omprakash Valmiki represents the voices of the Dalit community and their struggle to achieve a respectable space in the Indian socio-economic sphere. The narrative brims with an outrageous perspective and goes on to challenge the stringent notions of the divinely ordained caste system of India. Commenting on the life-long struggle of his as a Dalit, Valmiki writes, “Why is my caste my only identity? Many friends hint at the loudness and arrogance of my writings. They insinuate that I have imprisoned myself in a narrow circle…..That is, my being Dalit and arriving at a point of view according to my environment and my socioeconomic situation is being arrogant.
Because in their eyes, I am only an SC, the one who stands outside the door” Valmiki reflects on the lifelong struggle of his and how difficult it is for him to dissolve against the crowd. Despite being a renowned writer and poet, he does not feel a sense of belonging and is always made to believe that he is an outsider. His caste becomes an identity which is difficult to shed off and no matter what he ends up doing in life or how successful he becomes, his caste is always going to be a barrier between him and the upper caste communities of the society.
Disclosing his present condition, Valmki leaves his readers with a question, “Why is it a crime to ask for the price of one’s labor? Those who keep singing the glories of democracy use the government machinery to quell the blood flowing in our veins. As though we are not citizens of this country. The weak and helpless have been suppressed for thousands of years, just in this manner. There is no accounting of how many talents have been wiped out by deception and treachery.”
Joothan can be closely aligned with the Subaltern Studies Theory as it addresses a number of significant issues that are essential to the Subaltern Studies agenda. The concept of cultural erasure and the violence of caste-based prejudice are two major themes that come through in Joothan. In his biography, Valmiki details all the ways Dalits are marginalized from mainstream culture and denied access to necessities like resources and basic rights.
Additionally, he draws attention to the ways in which widely accepted cultural narratives and representation support and justify this exclusion, maintaining an oppressive system that is frequently inaccessible to those who are not directly impacted by it. The Subaltern Studies initiative, which seeks to reclaim and reinforce the experiences and opinions of subaltern communities and to challenge dominant cultural accounts that erase or marginalize these viewpoints, is centered on the issue of cultural erasure and violence.
V. Omprakash Valmiki’s “Salam” and “The Hide of an Oax”
Omprakash Valmiki is a well-known Dalit author whose writings reflect his personal experiences and sense of community. The two short tales of Valmiki, “Salam” and “The Hide of an Oax,” have received international acclaim for their moving depictions of Dalit marginalization.
Valmiki provides a captivating viewpoint on the hardships faced by the Dalit minority and their quest for social equality via his writing. Valmiki explores the difficulties of caste identification and the pervasive effects of social prejudice in “Salam,” while “The Hide of an Oax” focuses on the economic exploitation of Dalits. The writings of Valmiki make a significant contribution to the conversation in India on social justice and fairness.
Salam – a symbolic journey of identity
Omprakash Valmiki’s Salam is titled as a voyage of identification that symbolically reflects the challenges and tribulations Dalits in India go through. Salam, the main character and a young Dalit child living in a hamlet, is forced to confront his identity after experiencing prejudice and humiliation from his upper-caste schoolmates.
Salam’s fight for identification ends up serving as a moving metaphor for the Dalit community’s longer-running struggle for social equality. Valmiki highlights the pervasive social prejudice and discrimination that exist in India via Salam’s experiences and urges radical change to establish a society that values variety and upholds equality.
Salam explores societal equality via both overt and covert themes. The struggle of Dalits to achieve social acceptability and equality in their caste-based Hindu society is one of the prominent topics. The daily forms of prejudice faced by the Dalits are exposed by Valmiki such as being excluded from wells and temples because of their position.
Additionally, by using the characters’ inner experiences, such as feelings of shame and humiliation, the author analyzes the psychological effects of this caste-based discrimination on the Dalits. Salam, on the other hand, has a subtextual topic of social equality that emphasizes the ability of education and introspection to overcome societal inequalities.
The protagonist’s path of self-discovery and self-assertion serves as a moving reminder of the transforming power of individual empowerment and education in fostering social change. Salam, a potent literary work that refers to the hardships and sufferings of suppressed people in India, is therefore permeated with both overt and covert themes of social equality.
The Hide of an Ox: An Exploration of Identity and Inequality
Omprakash Valmiki depicts the harsh realities of India’s caste system in “The Hide of an Ox” through the protagonist’s struggle to make ends meet due to his low caste level. The plot examines the identity crisis that lower caste people have as a result of being denied chances and fundamental rights because of their place of birth. Valmiki illustrates the unpleasant fact of injustice and prejudice present in Indian culture by using the metaphor of the ox-hide, which stands for the armor or protection afforded by caste identity.
In his frantic attempts to overcome his low caste status and provide for his family, the protagonist turns his struggle into a fight for social equality and justice. The narrative emphasizes the need of having an open and constructive conversation about caste-based injustice and discrimination, challenging the current status quo and enabling the downtrodden to regain their identity and dignity.
The materiality and associated social shame of the oxhide in “The Hide of an Ox” both contribute to its symbolic meaning. The hide stands in for the physical effort and hardship that members of lower castes experience as outcasts in society. The hide serves as a representation of their identity, job, and way of life. The protagonist’s wish to get rid of the hide, however, reveals the desire to overcome the social shame associated with belonging to a lower caste in India.
The Hide of an Ox paints a vivid picture of the battle for equality and dignity in the face of ingrained caste prejudice. As a painful reminder of his low caste rank, the narrator, a Dalit child named Jhopdi, is made to wear the skin of a dead bull to protect himself from the extreme cold. The cruelty and humiliation that Dalits experience on a daily basis—from being refused access to temples to being made to labor in conditions of squalid servitude—are exposed by Valmiki through Jhopdi’s speech.
Jhopdi, however, refuses to be broken down by the forces that aim to strip off his humanity, thus his narrative also illustrates the strength and tenacity of the human spirit in the face of persecution. In the end, “The Hide of an Ox” serves as a potent indictment of the hierarchical and exploitative institutions that still permeate contemporary Indian culture and a call to action for all those who wish to work towards a more fair and equitable future.
Conclusion
The Dalit community now has a potent instrument in the form of Dalit literature to proclaim their identity and regain their agency in a society that has long marginalized them. The autobiography Joothan by Omprakash Valmiki and the short pieces Salam and The Hide of an Ox give a moving into the difficulties, aspirations, and pursuit of social equality by the Dalit group. The fortitude and tenacity of the Dalit people in the face of social and economic injustice are attested in Valmiki’s writing. Through his writings, Valmiki not only highlights the systematic exclusion of Dalits from the dominant discourse of Indian society but also gives voice to the struggles of his community. His writings serve as a living example of how literature can upend societal norms and promote a more inclusive society.
Dalit literature has the potential to upend current power systems and pave the way for a more fair and just society in the modern world, when the voices of the marginalized are frequently drowned out by dominant narratives. Engaging with this literature is essential for academics, decision-makers, and activists who want to better understand the struggles of marginalized populations and seek to make society more inclusive.
His works serve as a tangible illustration of how literature may challenge social mores and advance an inclusive society.
In the modern world, where the voices of the marginalised are usually drowned out by dominant narratives, dalit literature has the ability to overthrow existing power structures and create the way for a more just and equitable society. Academics, policymakers, and activists who want to comprehend the difficulties of marginalised communities and work to make society more inclusive must engage with this material.