Authored by AIF Fellows Nabhas Raj and Joshilyn Binkley
In recent decades, the growth of a neoliberal global order has fundamentally transformed how the majority of the world’s population moves about their lives. There is a shift from the communal towards the individual, and this shift can be witnessed in the decline of formal and informal public transport systems in most parts of the world. Advances in technology, availability of cheap labour in global south nations, consumerism and the rise of an urban middle-class has contributed to multifold increase in dependency on private transport.
In a highly populated country like India, the number of households that can afford a car is high, even when these numbers do not amount to much in percentage terms; only 7.5% of Indian households own a car. A shift towards privatization has also contributed to decreased investment in public transport in India- India invests 1.7% of its GDP in public transport, which is low when compared to neighboring China with a comparable population, at 5.5%.
Introductions to Authors
Nabhas was born and raised in the state of Kerala, with a comparatively strong and growing network of public road transport systems. Growing up as a regular commuter in public buses brought him closer to the idea of them, and the need to expand them significantly enough to overpower the demand for private vehicles. Living in metropolitan cities made him notice the stark contrast in inaccessible transport facilities and the roads congested by a growing car culture. Living in Himachal, the dependence of the working class on a below-par bus network seems very apparent to him.
Joshilyn grew up in a rural area of the United States that lacked public transportation infrastructure and where movement was restricted by the ability to access private vehicles. She fell in love with public transit when studying in Prague; her subsidized student-pass allowed her to explore the city in ways that would have been impossible without the service. Now as a resident of Hyderabad, the fourth largest city in India, the metro is one of her favorite things about being a Hyderabadi.
Economy, public. transport and social production
In their paper examining public transit, well-being, and inequality, Diego Hernández identifies opportunity structures that impact citizens’ well-being. Either facilitated by the market, state or society, these structures include education, job markets, transportation, healthcare, spaces for recreation and gathering, etc. “These opportunities impact household well-being because they allow or facilitate household members to make use of their own resources” (Hernandez). An individual’s ability to make use of their resources: their time, skills, knowledge, depends greatly on the community in which they live and the opportunity structures available to them. Transportation is a structure that allows individuals in a given area to take advantage of opportunities outside of their immediate vicinity, and public transit that is low-cost, efficient, and proximate can reduce inequalities in access.
In his 2017 book, How India Sees the World, former India Foreign Secretary, Shyam Saran remarks on private vehicles and development, “…we continue to project car ownership as a mark of economic success and social status. And the state encourages and supports private car ownership, even providing incentives for car manufacturers. Citizens have a right to mobility, not to vehicle ownership. The sooner we use financial measures to discourage private car ownership and invest heavily in an efficient public transportation, the more sustainable our economic development will be” (Saran). Public transportation is not only a tool for meditating economic inequalities, it is essential for developing sustainable communities.
Factors of Access
Inclusivity in public transport can be broadly interpreted as mobility for all irrespective of their social and economic location. When defining inclusivity, equality in terms of connectivity and mobility services need to be acknowledged. Planning public transport systems therefore needs to keep in mind the various aspects of transport such as geography, access and equity in transport for all sections of society (Thomas Coggins et al., 2015).
The overwhelming majority of India’s population struggle with poor public transport infrastructure and there is a clear class and coinciding caste divide in this struggle. The working-class population is highly dependent on public transport for their everyday activities. The growing occupation of public roads by privately owned vehicles reinforces the class/caste divides by leaving less infrastructure and space behind for the oppressed communities. In urban locations, marginalized communities live in crowded slums or sub-urban areas with reduced transport access.
Their average per capita trip distance is higher than those living in the heart of the city. The economic status of the individual is a primary force behind their choice of transport. Urban poor in cities in developing countries travel by foot for the majority of their trips (Judy Baker et al., 2005). In rural areas of many regions, lack of proper transport facilities is identified as an important factor behind poverty (Olinto et al., 2013).
To address this, the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched in 2000. The scheme has had much success in providing connectivity to around 85% of eligible habitations by 2018 (TERI, 2018). Despite such schemes, connectivity is still a major challenge in rural India. People depend on min-vans, tractor trailers, cycles, carts etc. for travel. The inadequacies limit them from accessing markets where they can sell their agricultural products, and restrict their livelihood options- such challenges are faced by 18.5 million people of rural India (Shilpa Aggarwal, 2018).
And while exploring further intersectionalities, marginalized genders and people with disabilities suffer furthermore against the limited options offered by public transport. In public spaces designed and dominated by men, women and people of other marginalized genders have decreased accessibility owing to safety and other obstacles that are directly formed as a result of gender inequalities. In India, like other developing countries, women are highly dependent on public transport, and at the same time are among its biggest users (world bank article).
Yet the challenges posed by lack of safety for women in public spaces has been a primary hindrance to female labour force participation across the world. According to a study by Ola Mobility Institute, only 9% of women find public transport to be completely safe (CNBC, 2021). In order to increase the labour force participation of women and to contribute to their financial empowerment, public transportation facilities must be improved. Women, who are regularly at risk of violence and harassment on public transport, require better provisions in terms of how transport is designed. Here it becomes important to integrate gender sensitivity at the planning stage itself.
Disability commonly refers to permanent or temporary physical conditions that limit an individual’s movement or senses or activities. It is estimated that around 6% of India’s population suffer from various disabilities, and providing them with adequate mobility services is an important part of ensuring their social, economic, and political inclusion.
But the condition in India is extremely challenging for such individuals. India launched the Accessible India campaign in 2015 which mandated accessible transport under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016. But the campaign has had very limited success so far. For example, according to official data from January 2021, only 7% of public buses are fully accessible to wheelchair users (CNBC, 2021). The urban spaces in India including the footpaths are rarely walkable and disabled-friendly.
Addressing the mobility requirement of marginalized genders and people with disabilities at the planning stage is necessary. It benefits not just the target group but also the wider population, including the elderly and children. Safe, accessible, and affordable public transport is an indispensable part of the economic empowerment of all marginalized sections of society.
Conclusion
There is an ever growing demand on the state to expand infrastructure and public transport facilities, owing to drastic growth in population and urbanization. This occurs amidst a shifting public perception in the dominant spheres of society in favor of decreased public spending and growing aspirations to accumulate private property. But at the same time, the demand to create inclusive public transport systems goes beyond increasing state investment in infrastructure development. Exclusion from public places is a structural issue with historical baggage.
The freedom of movement and equal rights in accessing public spaces has been denied to marginalized sections of the society through years of systemic oppression. There needs to be an intersectional approach toward addressing systemic exclusion, and this involves equitable participation of marginalized sections in the development process. The issues created by barriers of class, caste, gender, and disability must be resolved accordingly. Creating radical alternatives in public transport is only one section of a wider goal of building inclusive public spaces that are safe, walkable, gender-sensitive, disabled-friendly and sustainable.
Citations
Athul. “State-Wise Percentage of Car/Bike Ownership in India.” Www.drivespark.com, 25 May 2022, www.drivespark.com/four-wheelers/2022/state-wise-percentage-of-car-bike-ownership-in-india-036059.html.
“Designing Public Transport in India That Works for All.” World Bank, World Bank, 23 Feb. 2023, www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2023/02/09/how-to-help-ensure-safe-and-inclusive-public-spaces-and-public-transport-for-women-in-india.
Hernández, Diego. “Public Transport, Well-being and Inequality: Coverage and Affordability in the City of Montevideo.” CEPAL Review, vol. 12, 2017, p. 154, https://doi.org/R40, R48, Z13, Z18. Accessed 23 Apr. 2023.
Kumari, Harshita. “Is Public Commute Gender Inclusive?: Access, Safety, and Utility of Our Transport Infrastructure.” Feminism in India, 5 June 2022, feminisminindia.com/2022/06/06/is-public-commute-gender-inclusive-transport-infrastructure/. Accessed 28 May 2023.
“Number of Buses: Himachal Pradesh | Economic Indicators | CEIC.” CEIC Data, www.ceicdata.com/en/india/number-of-buses-by-public-and-private-sector/number-of-buses-himachal-pradesh#:~:text=Number%20of%20Buses%3A%20Himachal%20Pradesh%20data%20was%20reported. Accessed 28 May 2023.
Rahul Sunilkumar, Singh . “Only 1 in 12 Indian Households Have Car, Mahindra Asks Netizens for Conclusion.” Hindustan Times, 27 Dec. 2022, www.hindustantimes.com/car-bike/only-1-in-12-indian-households-have-car-mahindra-asks-netizens-for-conclusion-101672146176271.html.
Saran, Shyam . How India Sees the World. Juggernaut Books, 2018. pp. 187, 191.
Singh, Seema. “Green Growth and Transport in Himachal Pradesh .” The Energy Resource Institute, The Energy Resource Institute, 2015, www.teriin.org/projects/green/pdf/HP-Transport.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2023.
Socio -Economic Indicators of Himachal Pradesh 2014-15. Department of Economics and Statistics Himachal Pradesh, Shimla, himachalservices.nic.in/economics/pdf/SocioEconomicIndicator_2014_15.pdf.
Statistics Brief ► Spending on Transport Infrastructure Inland Transport Infrastructure Investment Share of GDP Remains Stable in OECD. June 2021, www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/inland-transport-infrastructure-investment-gdp-stable.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2023.
Y S Rana. “Himachal Expanding Public Road Transport System.” Divya Himachal, 30 Dec. 2017, www.divyahimachal.com/2017/12/himachal-expanding-public-road-transport-system/. Accessed 28 May 2023.